describe how epidemiological data influences changes in health practices

An official website of the United States government. Linking to a non-federal website does not constitute an endorsement by CDC or any of its employees of the sponsors or the information and products presented on the website. Much has changed in the past 100 years, including tools to describe, analyze, and address determinants of health and disease. Provide an example and explain what data would be necessary to make a change in practice. The important attributes of a public health surveillance system can and should be applied to data collected in response to an urgent event (see Introduction). WebWK-5 DQs DQ-1 Describe how epidemiological data influences changes in health practices. Small sample size, resulting in inadequate power to detect differences between groups. Epidemiology is concerned with the frequency and pattern of health events in a population: Frequency refers not only to the number of health events such as the number of cases of meningitis or diabetes in a population, but also to the relationship of that number to the size of the population. Days (2-day intervals) between onset of a case of severe acute respiratory syndrome and onset of the corresponding source case: Beijing, China, MarchApril 2003. Source: Adapted from Ajloun Non-Communicable Disease Project, Jordan, unpublished data, 2017. Source: Ajloun Non-Communicable Disease Project, Jordan, Unpublished data, 2017. Cookies used to make website functionality more relevant to you. The tables, graphs, and charts presented in this chapter have been determined experimentally to perform best in conveying information and data patterns to you and others. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. After the initial case, 15 days elapsed until the peak of the first generation of new cases. Among 9,422 blood lead tests conducted during April 2013March 2016, 284 (3.0%) BLLs were 5 g/dL or higher; the probability of having BLLs of 5 g/dL or greater was 46% higher during the period after the switch from Detroit Water Authority to FWS than before the switch to FWS. Outbreaks that arise from environmental sources usually encompass multiple generations or incubation periods for the agent. Instructions on conducting the interviews, especially if there are multiple interviewers: Include the importance of reading the questions verbatim, term definitions, the pace of the interview, answers to frequently asked questions, and ways to handle urgent situations. An important initial step in collecting data as part of a field investigation is determining the mode of data collection (e.g., self-administered, mailed, phone or in-person interview, online survey) (29). Logistics, including budget, personnel, and timeline. Official websites use .gov WebThey concluded that epidemiological data helps to plan and strategizes in the prevention and management of epidemic diseases or illnesses. When the row or column headings are numeric (e.g., age groups), they should govern the order of the data. To make the proper diagnosis and prescribe appropriate treatment for a patient, the clinician combines medical (scientific) knowledge with experience, clinical judgment, and understanding of the patient. Mailed and Internet surveys traditionally yield lower response rates than phone surveys; however, response rate for phone surveys also has declined during the past decade (. Uncontrolled confounding or bias introduced in the association between exposure and outcome because of third variable. Clearly indicate scale divisions and scaling units. Information about determining whom to select is covered in study design discussions in Chapter 7, but sample size is worth briefly mentioning here. A more precise approach to estimating how much for measurements on a continuous scale, discussed earlier in this chapter, might be to compute the average and dispersion of the individual BMI measurements, as shown on a box-and-whisker plot (Figure 6.1). Thank you for taking the time to confirm your preferences. mosquitoes was identified in northeastern Brazil. Returning now to counts, you can calculate expected case counts for a population by multiplying an expected (e.g., historical counts, increased surveillance, or output from prevention and control programs) or a target rate by the population total. The disease or health condition onset time is the preferred statistic for studying time patterns. Moreover, most, if not all, field investigations will be done by a larger team. These cookies may also be used for advertising purposes by these third parties. The choice between tables and charts depends on the purpose, the audience, and the complexity of the data. For certain conditions, a description by season, month, day of the week, or even time of day can be revealing. In arranging analytical tables, you should begin with the arrangement of the data space by following a simple set of guidelines (Box 6.3) (1). Response rate. The averages and dispersions can be displayed in a table or visualized in a box-and-whisker plot that indicates the median, mean, interquartile range, and outliers (Figure 6.1) (5). A more precise approach involves computing the average and dispersion of the individual measurements. Cookies used to enable you to share pages and content that you find interesting on CDC.gov through third party social networking and other websites. Data security, privacy, confidentiality, information technology controls. Because population estimates or censuses follow standard geographic areas (e.g., city, census tract, county, state, or country), determination of rates is also restricted to these same areas. Collecting mortality statistics and classifying the causes of death dates to the 1500s in London, when the Bill of Mortality was periodically published (2). : Adapted from Ajloun Non-Communicable Disease Project, Jordan, unpublished data, 2017. Online order forms or electronic grocery receipts may be useful in identifying names of customers to contact to determine illness status. cDefined as current use of asthma medicine or one or more of the following symptoms during the previous 12 months: wheezing or whistling in the chest, awakening with a feeling of chest tightness, or attack of asthma. During the 1800s, Dr. William Farr developed a disease classification system that ushered in the era of modern vital statistics (3). Norovirus (GII) infection was confirmed as the causative agent. 100% (3 ratings) Ans) Epidemiology is the study of the health status of human populations. On the opposite end of the scale, injuries and acute poisonings have instantaneous and obvious onsets. In addition, maps display a wealth of underlying detail to compare against disease distributions. Cases not included in clusters are marked with smaller dots. Wednesday 10 This means that the results of such a study may be quite different from a study in which actual hearing (audiometric) tests are administered to each person in a household. Helps validate the eventual incrimination of causes or risk factors. Discussing up front the purpose of the investigation and the data collection processes will prove invaluable in the long run when collaborators are needed during case finding, data collection, implementation of control measures, and communication with affected populations and the public. For these larger areas, stratifying the epidemic curves by smaller subunits can reveal the underlying periodicity. Epidemiology is the study (scientific, systematic, data-driven) of the distribution (frequency, pattern) and determinants (causes, risk factors) of health-related states and events (not just diseases) in specified populations (patient is community, individuals viewed collectively), and the application of (since epidemiology is a discipline within public health) this study to the control of health problems. Determining whether an urgent public health problem exists (i.e., an excess of observed cases of illness above what is expected) depends on knowing the expected background rate of endemic disease. With acute infections, poisonings, and injuries, you will often have precise exposure times to different suspected agents. Provide an example and explain what data would be necessary to make a change in practice. Adapting preexisting protocols and questionnaires will facilitate a timely response and consistency across jurisdictions. Like the practice of medicine, the practice of epidemiology is both a science and an art. Indeed, the term health-related states or events may be seen as anything that affects the well-being of a population. Provide an example and explain what data would be necessary to make a change in practice. Do not insist on a zero level unless it is an integral feature of the data (e.g., an endpoint). Much of the data that epidemiologists collect comes from self-reportfrom answers provided by people participating in a study. For example, elevated childhood blood lead levels are a reportable condition, prompting investigation into possible environmental sources of lead. If you need to go back and make any changes, you can always do so by going to our Privacy Policy page. They assess whether groups with different rates of disease differ in their demographic characteristics, genetic or immunologic make-up, behaviors, environmental exposures, or other so-called potential risk factors. Disease or unhealthy conditions also can be measured on a continuous scale rather than counted directly (e.g., body mass index [BMI], blood lead level, blood hemoglobin, blood sugar, or blood pressure). The epidemic curve accompanying the severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) contact diagram (Figure 6.2, panel B) illustrates these features, including waves with an approximate 1-week periodicity. Place patterns include geographic variation, urban/rural differences, and location of work sites or schools. Study population, case definition, sample size, and selection. Information was drawn in part from the Surveys and Sampling chapter in the earlier edition of this book (27) and from Designing Clinical Research (28). Indicate an interval of 12 incubation periods before the outbreak increases from the background and after it returns to background levels. The epidemiologist must keep in mind that the primary purpose of a field investigation into an urgent public health problem is to control the problem and prevent further illness. Commonly in descriptive epidemiology, you organize cases by frequency of clinical findings (Table 6.2) (3). Length and complexity of the survey. These cookies may also be used for advertising purposes by these third parties. Ajloun Non-Communicable Disease Project, Jordan, Unpublished data, 2017. WebDescribe how epidemiological data influences changes in health practices. Use alternating light shading of rows to assist readers in following data across a table. Thank you for taking the time to confirm your preferences. To reveal distinctive internal patterns (e.g., by exposure, method of case detection, place, or personal characteristics) in time distributions, epidemic curves should be stratified (Figure 6.9). Vectorborne diseases propagate between an arthropod vector and a vertebrate host. Many of these data sources are promising in theory, and epidemiologists are busy evaluating their utility in outbreak detection and case identification. Basic epidemiologic methods tend to rely on careful observation and use of valid comparison groups to assess whether what was observed, such as the number of cases of disease in a particular area during a particular time period or the frequency of an exposure among persons with disease, differs from what might be expected. Certain behaviors (e.g., drug addiction or mass sociogenic illness) might propagate from person to person, but the epidemic curve will not necessarily reflect generation times. To avoid clutter and maintain undistorted comparisons, consider using two or more separate panels for different strata on the same graph. National Center for State, Tribal, Local, and Territorial Public Health Infrastructure and Workforce, U.S. Department of Health & Human Services. Instead, put them just outside the data region. Match the term to the activity that best describes it. New data collected in the context of field investigations should be evaluated for attributes similar to those for surveillance data, such as quality, definitions, timeliness, completeness, simplicity, generalizability, validity, and reliability (1). These are widely dispersed, indicating that they did not acquire their infection from their local environs. Changes in the shape of primary care, and the range of symptoms and illnesses managed by different members of the primary health care team, can influence understanding of: the epidemiology of disease in the community; the need for different health care services; and how primary care epidemiology is done. Epidemiology is not just the study of health in a population; it also involves applying the knowledge gained by the studies to community-based practice. The analyses and results are only as good as the quality of the data collected (remember GIGO!). Study design (e.g., cohort study, casecontrol study). Use the most important epidemiologic features on which to sort the data. Rates, Ratios, and Alternative Denominators. One such tool, Epi Info, was developed by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) and is a public domain suite of interoperable software tools designed for public health practitioners (available at https://www.cdc.gov/epiinfo/index.html) (see Chapter 5). To indicate divergence from an average range, use white for the center range and deepening intensities of two different hues for divergent strata on opposite extremes. Cookies used to track the effectiveness of CDC public health campaigns through clickthrough data. Many of the steps to conducting a field investigation rely on identifying relevant existing data or collecting new data that address the key investigation objectives. These cookies allow us to count visits and traffic sources so we can measure and improve the performance of our site. This chapter focuses on the collection of quantitative data (see Chapter 10 for qualitative data collection). They help us to know which pages are the most and least popular and see how visitors move around the site. CDC twenty four seven. Cookies used to track the effectiveness of CDC public health campaigns through clickthrough data. More precision is usually not needed for epidemiologic purposes. For questions about the EIS program, please contact us directly at EISApplication@cdc.gov. Reported incidence rate of spotted fever rickettsiosis by county: United States, 20002013. This expected or target case count is now corrected for the population and can be compared with the actual observed case counts.

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